Literature Review

Introduction

Education today is evolving, and in order to prepare teachers for the future, there must be a change in the way teachers learn (Oddone et al., 2019). To prepare students to be successful in the 21st Century, teachers must learn to teach students in new ways (Wei et al., 2009). Traditional professional development does not adequately train teachers to use technology tools (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation & Boston Consulting Group [BCG], 2014). When teachers learn specific skills and how to teach them to students, the students reap the benefits (Wei et al., 2009). 

Research shows that teachers feel that most current professional development does not apply to them or what they teach (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation & BCG, 2014).  Traditional professional development is not personalized, and it does not meet teachers’ needs (Gamrat et al., 2014). While teachers indicate that they spend nearly 90 hours each year in professional development activities, this professional development is not effective because it has little or no impact on student learning (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation & BCG, 2014).

This literature review will examine choice and voice in student learning via micro-credentials as a professional learning method. It will explore effective professional learning, micro-credentials as a form of professional learning, and ways to incorporate student choice and voice in learning. This review is part of an action research project that seeks to answer the question: Does using micro-credential in professional learning increase the use of technology tools that emphasize student choice and voice by 7th grade and 8th-grade core academic teachers?  This document, along with the action research, will be used as supporting material when proposing a change in the professional development format to campus and district administration.  

Review of the Literature

Effective Professional Learning

Professional learning is different from traditional professional development in that it includes multiple learning methods, not only workshops,  that increase teacher knowledge (Wei et al., 2009). Teachers are making the change to professional learning independently as they use various online resources to improve student instruction in their classrooms (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation & BCG, 2014).  Researchers have described what makes professional learning effective, and they agree that professional learning must be: active, relevant, ongoing, and supported (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation & BCG, 2014; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012).

Active learning is hands-on learning and allows teachers to experience learning the same way their students will (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Parrish et al., 2020). When describing how to learn new technology, research says teachers must learn how to use hardware or software and how to integrate it into the classroom (Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012). 

Teacher training based on content increases the understanding and implementation of what was learned (Parrish et al., 2020).  Research shows that when teacher training is content-specific, it influences student learning (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). One reason for this is that the training targets the teachers’ goals and classroom needs (Parrish et al., 2020).

Teachers support each other in their learning as they work together in professional learning communities (PLCs) (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). As Darling-Hammond and colleagues (2017) convey, when PLC’s are implemented correctly, they impact student and teacher learning. Another means of teacher support is professional learning networks (PLNs) (Oddone et al., 2019). PLCs are structured communities of support within a school (Wei et al., 2009). PLNs leverage resources outside of school, including social connections, and are an informal learning type of support (Oddone et al., 2019). Individual coaching and mentoring are also effective means of support for teachers as the coach or mentor focuses on individual teachers’ needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Wei et al., 2009).

Professional learning experiences need to be ongoing so that there is time to learn, time to get comfortable with the new skill/strategy, and time to implement what was learned in the classroom (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Potter & Rockinson-Szapkis, 2012). The duration could be relatively short, a few weeks, for example, or could even take much longer, such as a full year (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017)

.Micro-Credentials as Professional Learning

Micro-credentials are “online representations of learning experiences and activities that tell a story about the learner’s education and skills” (Gamrat et al., 2014). Research shows micro-credentials are also referred to as digital badges and are visual representations of learning (Gamrat et al., 2014; Rimland & Raish, 2019).

French and Berry (2017) explain that learning via micro-credentials is different from traditional professional development in that it allows teachers to take ownership of their professional learning. Micro-credentials are competency-based, personalized, available anytime, and shareable (French & Berry, 2017). The focus of professional development becomes learning new skills and then demonstrating knowledge instead of time spent in training (French & Berry, 2017; Gamrat et al., 2014).

 Micro-credentials are a form of personalized learning as they allow the teacher to choose what they want to learn, how they want to learn, and where they want to learn (Casilli & Hickey, 2016; Gamrat et al., 2014). Learning opportunities are ongoing as they can be worked on at the learners’ pace (Besser & Newby, 2020). Digital badges can be earned in any order and any length of time; mastery of learning is the goal (French & Berry, 2017). 

French and Berry (2017) explain the steps to earning a badge: teacher masters learning, evidence of learning is submitted and reviewed, a digital badge is issued if evidence meets the criteria. Once the badge is issued, the teacher decides how to share the digital badge, for example, social media, email, websites, or online in badge repositories (Besser & Newby, 2020; French & Berry, 2017). Badging adds a gamification component to professional learning (Roy & Clark, 2019) because badges can be structured to allow for multiple levels of achievement for each badge (Rimland & Raish, 2019).

In order to get staff excited about this new type of learning, digital badges can be issued, instead of paper certificates, at the end of professional development so that learners can visually show what they have learned (Jones et al., 2018). Digital badges give educators a way to share their learning with administrators and other teachers (Gamrat et al., 2014). Digital badges are evidence of learning and can be added to a digital portfolio (Casilli & Hickey, 2016). 

In the early stages, badging systems were hosted locally on websites, and the credentials were hard to share (Jones et al., 2017). As badging systems became more widely used, a new uniform standard was implemented (Rimland & Raish, 2019).  This uniform standard, called the Open Badge Infrastructure (OBI), enables organizations to collect information and was created to collect badges from multiple sources and easily shared (Casilli & Hickey, 2016; Rimland & Raish, 2019).   The information that is collected includes: who is issuing the badge, the name of the person earning the badge, the badge description and what was required to earn the badge, and the evidence of learning (Casilli & Hickey, 2016).  

Many learning management systems (LMS), which schools are using already, now integrate a badging system. The LMS makes it convenient for teachers to earn badges because the badging system is built into a structure they already use for their classes (Rimland & Raish, 2019).  The learning management system helps organize learning activities and resources for teachers, and it gives them a place to submit their evidence of learning (Gamrat et al., 2014). As mentioned previously, it is important to note that evidence of learning must be reviewed against criteria before the badge can be issued (French & Berry, 2017).

Implementing Student Choice and Voice in Classrooms

Giving students a choice in their learning empowers them, and increases motivation (Thibodeaux et al., 2019).  According to Thibodeaux et al. (2019), “voice is the manifestation of choice,” and it comes from perspective and reflection. It is important to note that for teachers to implement student choice and voice into their curriculum successfully, they must be trained on how to do it (Shane & Wojnowski, 2005).

One way to give students a choice is through student-centered learning (Eronen & Kärnä, 2018). Student-centered learning can be implemented by letting students choose what assignments they want to complete from a menu of choices (Hanewicz et al., 2017). Using this type of approach allows students to take charge of their learning (Eronen & Kärnä, 2018). Teachers need to be aware of this when implementing student-centered learning because while most students enjoy deciding how they will show what they learned, some students resist this change to choice and voice in learning (DeMink-Carthew & Netcoh, 2019).

Another way to implement student choice and voice in learning is through personalized learning. Personalized learning is different from student-centered learning in that students are involved in how they learn throughout all steps of the learning cycle (DeMink-Carthew & Netcoh, 2019). When teachers implement personalized learning, students are given a choice in how they demonstrate mastery. Technology tools enable personalized learning because they give students a voice in how they learn (Demski, 2012). Personalized learning happens when students select what they will learn and what tools and resources they will use to learn (DeMink-Carthew & Netcoh, 2019). 

Technology allows students to learn in ways they have not been able to before, but for technology to make an impact, teachers must first learn to use it (Wali & Popal, 2020). The research shows that schools that embrace training on the use of technology tools are more likely to see the results of teachers integrating technology tools to increase student learning (Demski, 2012). When teachers are properly trained on using technology in the classroom, they are more likely to feel comfortable trying new and inventive ways to use the technology (Wali & Popal, 2020).

Teachers can implement digital badge programs in the classroom to give students a choice and voice in their learning (Rimland & Raish, 2019). These programs can be successful in all education levels, from elementary to high education (Rimland & Raish, 2019). A badging program in the classroom helps expectations for learning to be clear. It helps learners know what should be learned, helps them find the resources needed to learn, guides them as they practice, provides a way to show mastery, and gives them a way to showcase their learning (Casilli & Hickey, 2016). Badges can act as a form of assessment because users must prove content knowledge and skill to earn them (Carey & Stefaniak, 2018).

Summary

In this summary, you will find the conclusion, contribution to the field of education, the study’s strengths and weaknesses, and the topics for further research. The conclusion summarizes the literature regarding micro-credentials as a form of professional learning and choice and voice in student learning. The contribution to the field of study will explain what this literature review adds to the field of education. The strengths and weaknesses section will cover the strengths and limitations of the study. Finally, the last section will suggest topics for further research.

Conclusions

Research showed that effective professional learning needs to be active, relevant, ongoing, and have support available (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation & BCG, 2014; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012). The use of micro-credentials, also referred to in this paper as digital badges, changes professional learning by allowing teachers to choose their learning path (French & Berry, 2017).  Micro-credentials give teachers ownership over their learning (French & Berry, 2017). Both teachers and students can use a micro-credential system to learn (Rimland & Raish, 2019).

If teachers are to become effective in using technology to give the student a choice and voice in learning, they need to become comfortable using technology themselves. (Potter & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2012). Teachers who learn to use technology as a tool can facilitate students’ learning in new ways by using technology (Wali & Popal, 2020).

There are many ways to give students choice and voice in the classroom. One way to do this is by using a student-centered model that provides students with choices, such as giving them a menu of options and let them select which they want to complete (Hanewicz et al., 2017).  Another way to give students a choice and voice in learning is to move to a personalized learning model, which gets students involved in all steps of their learning, from the planning to the completion of learning (De-Mink-Carthew & Netcoh, 2019).

Contributions of This Study to Education

This literature review will add to the field of education as a reference for personalized professional learning using micro-credentials. It emphasizes the need for teachers to learn to use technology tools to affect learning. The study also shares three ways to enable student choice and voice in the classroom; student-centered learning, personalized learning, and the use of micro-credentials by students.

Strengths and Weaknesses of This Study

There were many resources available on the benefits of professional learning as well as on micro-credentials in education. There were also multiple sources regarding the benefits of student-centered and personalized learning. Resources were limited on the specific topics of choice and voice in middle school students and teachers learning technology tools via micro-credentials and then implementing these skills in their classrooms.

Topics for Further Study 

Further research needs to be done on the topic of teachers implementing technology skills learned via micro-credentials into their classrooms.  This research’s specific focus needs to be on teacher use of technology in middle school classrooms to give students a voice and choice in learning. Finally, further research is needed on using digital badging programs at the middle school level and their effect on student learning.

References

Besser, E. D., & Newby, T. J. (2020). Impact of performance feedback for effective use of digital badges. Journal of Education and Learning, 9(3), 79. doi:10.5539/jel.v9n3p79

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, & Boston Consulting Group (BCG). (2014). Teachers know best: Teachers’ views on professional development. In Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED576976 

Carey, K. L., & Stefaniak, J. E. (2018). An exploration of the utility of digital badging in higher education settings. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(5), 1211-1229. doi:10.1007/s11423-018-9602-1

Casilli, C., & Hickey, D. (2016). Transcending conventional credentialing and assessment paradigms with information-rich digital badges. The Information Society, 32(2), 117-129. doi:10.1080/01972243.2016.1130500

Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional Development (pp. 1-64, Rep.). Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED606743)

Demski, J. (2012). This time it’s personal. T.H.E. Journal, 39(1), 32–36. https://eds-b-ebscohost-com.libproxy.lamar.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=13&sid=c36c89e5-025a-4bbe-a938-2d41f02b6fb1%40pdc-v-sessmgr02

Demink-Carthew, J., & Netcoh, S. (2019). Mixed feelings about choice: Exploring variation in middle school student experiences with making choices in a personalized learning project. RMLE Online, 42(10), 1-20. doi:10.1080/19404476.2019.1693480

Eronen, L., & Kärnä, E. (2017). Students acquiring expertise through student-centered learning in mathematics lessons. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 62(5), 682-700. doi:10.1080/00313831.2017.1306797

 French, D., & Berry, B. (2017). Teachers, micro-credentials, and the performance assessment movement. Voices in Urban Education, 46, 37–43. https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ1148462

Gamrat, C., Zimmerman, H. T., Dudek, J., & Peck, K. (2014). Personalized workplace learning: An exploratory study on digital badging within a teacher professional development program. British Journal of Educational Technology, 45(6), 1136-1148. doi:10.1111/bjet.12200

Hanewicz, C., Platt, A., & Arendt, A. (2017). Creating a learner-centered teaching environment using student choice in assignments. Distance Education, 38(3), 273-287. doi:10.1080/01587919.2017.1369349

 Jones, W. M., Hope, S., & Adams, B. (2017). Teachers’ perceptions of digital badges as recognition of professional development. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(3), 427-438. doi:10.1111/bjet.12557

Oddone, K., Hughes, H., & Lupton, M. (2019). Teachers as connected professionals: A model to support professional learning through personal learning networks. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 20(3), 102–120. https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ1223631 

Parrish, C. W., Byrd, K. O., Johnson, T. M., Dasinger, J., & Green, A. M. (2020). Middle grades mathematics teachers’ mixed perceptions of content-focused professional development. RMLE Online, 43(8), 1-16. doi:10.1080/19404476.2020.1814626

Potter, S. L., & Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J. (2012). Technology integration for instructional improvement: The impact of professional development. Performance Improvement, 51(2), 22-27. doi:10.1002/pfi.21246

Roy, S., & Clark, D. (2018). Digital badges, do they live up to the hype? British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(5), 2619-2636. doi:10.1111/bjet.12709

Rimland, E., & Raish, V. (Eds.). (2019). Micro-credentials and digital badges. Chicago, Ill, IL: ALA. Retrieved December 4, 2020, from https://eds-a-ebscohost-com.libproxy.lamar.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=5&sid=c23e0782-bd70-4fdf-88b4-66af07492dd7%40sdc-v-sessmgr01.

Shane, P. M., & Wojnowski, B. S. (2005). Technology integration enhancing science: Things take time. Science Educator, 14(1), 49–55. https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ886168 

Thibodeaux, T., Harapnuik, D., & Cummings, C. (2019). Student perceptions of the influence of choice, ownership, and voice in learning and the learning environment. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 31(1), 50–62. https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ1206966. 

Wali, A. Z., & Popal, A. W. (2020). The emerging issues and impacts of technology in classroom learning. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET), 15(15), 237. doi:10.3991/ijet.v15i15.14175

 Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., Andree, A., Richardson, N., & Orphanos,S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. Dallas, TX. National Staff Development Council. https://learningforward.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/status-of-professional-learning-phase-1-technical-report.pdf